A Brief History of Ancient Rome
D. Brendan Nagle
Contents
1. The Challenge of Roman History 1
1. Why Rome? 1
Some Answers 1
2. What Do We Know About Rome and How Do We Know It? 2
Sources 2
Inscriptions 4
Coins 5
Archaeology 6
2. Rome in Context 10
1. Roman Borrowing 10
2. The Mediterranean Environment 11
Quicker, Cheaper, Easier 12
Diversity and Dominance 12
Central Place Location: Logistics 13
3. The Roman Paradox: An Empire Without a Heartland 14
4. Climate(s) and the “Mediterranean Triad” 14
The Mediterranean Triad 15
Food, Civilization, and Barbarism 16
5. The Economy 16
Survival: Cultivate a Little of Everything 17
Slaves 18
Risky Behavior: Monoculture and Famine 18
Insurance through Networks 19
3. Early Rome 20
1. The Warlike Mediterranean 20
2. Rome’s Lake: The Western Mediterranean 21
The Economy of the Western Mediterranean 23
Italy: Geography and History 24
The Peoples of Italy: A Cultural, Polyglot Mosaic 27
The Etruscans 28
Etruscan Culture’s Legacy to Rome 29
3. The Latins and Early Rome 31
The Hills of Rome 31
The Founders of Rome: The Historiographic Challenge 31
The Greek Matrix 33
Greek or Trojan Founders? 33
The Kings of Rome 34
3. The Republic 34
Expulsion of the Kings 34
Dangerous Legends 36
The Patrician State 36
The Plebeian State 39
Rome’s First Law Code: The Twelve Tables 40
5. The Patrician-Plebeian State 41
Access to Political Office 41
Appius Claudius Caecus 42
The Lex Hortensia 43
Summary and Conclusion 43
6. The Social and Political Achievements of Early Rome:An Analysis 44
Why Early Rome was Successful: The Polis 44
Roman Exceptionality? 45
Study Questions 46
4. Building an Empire 47
1. The Growth of Rome in Italy 47
A Challenging Environment 47
Rome and the Latins 48
The New Army 51
The End of the Latin League: A Pivotal Event 53
Techniques of Incorporation 54
The Samnite Wars 56
Tarentum and Pyrrhus 58
2. The Punic Wars: The Conflict with Carthage 60
Carthage and Rome 61
The First Punic War (264–241 b.c.) 62
Strategy: The Problem of Winning Asymmetrical Wars 64
Between the Wars 65
The War with Hannibal (218–201 b.c.) 66
A Final Balance Sheet 69
3. Roman Territorial Expansion after the Hannibalic War 70
Confiscations in Italy 70
Spain 70
4. Macedonia and the East 71
War with Philip V 71
The Seleucid War 73
Decoding Rome’s Intentions 73
5. The End of Corinth and Carthage 75
6. Rome’s Empire: An Analysis 75
Why Nations Rule Other Nations 76
Restraints on Imperial Expansion 76
The Historiography of Roman Imperialism 77
Study Questions 78
5. Rome’s Formula for Success 80
1. Legitimate Politics in Rome: Religion’s Role 81
Roman Religiosity 81
True Religion for the Romans: The Pax Deorum 82
Prodigies 83
Priest-Politicians 84
Originality of the Roman Religious System 87
2. The Republic: The Best and the Rest 88
The Challenging of Governing 88
How to Succeed in the Roman Aristocracy: The Ideology of Virtue 89
Roman Honors: The Magistracies 91
The Cursus Honorum: The Race Course of Honors 92
Elections, Legislation, Decision Making 94
Annual Elections 96
Some Advantages of the System 98
The Weakness of the Informal System 99
The Senate 100
The Council of the Plebs 101
3. The Cursus Honorum and the Army 101
The Senate and the Provinces 102
4. The Roman Army and Society 106
Citizen Soldiers 106
The Importance of Allies 106
5. Summary 107
So: Why was Rome so Successful in War? 107
Study Questions 108
6. Roman Society 109
1. A Very Peculiar Society 109
Premodern Rome 109
2. Ordo and the Orders 111
The Meaning of Ordo 111
The Equestrian Ordo 112
The Senatorial Ordo 112
3. The Household: The Foundation of the Roman State 116
The Household as State 117
What Made Up A Roman Household: Things 118
What Made up a Household: Persons 121
Wives and Dowries 124
Household Governance 126
Sacral Headship 127
Personal and Property Headship 129
The Functional Aspects of Patria Potestas 130
Other Household Possessions: Political, Social and Cultural Capital 131
4. Summary 133
5. An Estimate of Roman Society: Defending the Indefensible? 134
Consistency 134
Contributing Their Fair Share 135
Study Questions 136
7. The Transformation of the Roman Republic: The Old Order Fades 137
1. Shortcomings of the System 137
City-State Assumptions 137
Culturally Backward Romans 139
2. The Transformation 139
Infrastructure Investment 139
Cash-Crop Farming 141
3. What Sparked All This? Rome’s Economic Revolution 143
Entry into the Common Market 143
The Transition from Loot to Taxation 146
4. Cultural Changes: Rome and Greece 149
Public Opinion and the Need to Communicate 149
Historiography 149
Beginnings of the Theater 150
Religion 152
5. New Classes Emerge 153
Slaves: Numbers and Roles 153
Equestrians and Publicans 154
The Non-elite 155
6. The Gracchan Crisis: The Social and Political Context 157
Discontent in the Army 157
The Secret Ballot 157
Social Bonds Dissolve 159
Tiberius Gracchus: The Emergence of Popular Politics 159
Elite Reformers 160
The Gracchan Theory 160
The Reform Platform 161
Political Failure 162
Gaius Gracchus 162
From Booty to Taxation 163
Another Assassination 164
7. What Went Wrong: An Analysis 165
Study Questions 166
8. The Fall of the Republic: From the Gracchi to Augustus 167
1. The Great Conundrum 168
Decline into Oligarchy 168
The Reforms of Marius 169
The African and German Wars 170
The Veterans and Politics: A New Paradigm 172
The Social War 173
Citizenship Issue Resolved—Partially 175
2. The Dynasts: The Engineers of the Fall of the Republic 175
Sulla 175
Pompey 177
A Dangerous Alliance: Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar 177
Clodius and His Gangs 179
Rome’s Heterogeneity 179
The Genius of Clodius 179
Mutinies: The Threat from the Army 180
Mutinies: A New Pattern 181
3. The Civil Wars 182
Caesar 182
Caesar’s Reforms 182
The Legacy of Caesar 183
4. The Cultural Revolution 184
The Luxury Villa 185
Literature and Society: The Challenge of Creating a Vernacular
Literature 186
Rhetoric, Pamphlets and Books 187
Antiquarianism 190
Poetry and the Ideals of Public Service 190
5. The Fall of the Republic: A Summary 193
Explanations 194
Integrating the New Roman Society 196
Study Questions 197
9. The Roman World from Augustus to the Third-Century Crisis 198
1. The Reforms of Augustus 198
The Army, the Senate, and the People 198
First: Constitutional Issues 199
Citizenship Transformed 200
Religious and Social Reform 201
Religious Headship 202
Augustus’ Cultural Program 203
Augustus’ Art and Building Program 204
Maintaining Order in the Capital 205
The Administration of the City 206
The Succession 206
2. Rounding out the Empire 208
The Julio-Claudians 208
The Frontiers 208
Tiberius and Caligula 209
Claudius 209
Nero: The Last of the Julio Claudians 209
3. The Flavians and the Five “Good Emperors” 212
A New Imperial Image 212
Marcus Aurelius 215
Frontier Developments: An Insoluble Dilemma 215
4. The Severan Emperors 216
A Repeat of a.d. 69 216
A New Dynasty from Africa 217
Septimius’ Advice to His Sons 217
The Severan Dynasty and Rome 218
Study Questions 218
10. The Roman Peace 220
1. A Tendency to Anarchy 220
The Cement of Empire: A Cost-Benefit Analysis 220
Distance and Time: The Secret Enemies of the Roman Peace 221
Few Romans 223
Cultural Pluralism and Cultural Unity 223
2. Containing Anarchy 224
The Imperial Office 224
The Metanarrative of the Roman Empire 225
An Under-Administered Empire: A Libertarian’s Paradise 226
Apex of the Social Pyramid: The Senate 227
Social Reproduction: Education 230
Culture, the Masses, and Daily Life 232
3. Urban Life, the Economy and Romanization 234
The Self-governing Cities of the Empire 234
Euergetism 235
Collegia: Status for Everyone 238
Freedmen and Augustales: Status among Former Slaves 239
4. The Army and the Defense of the Empire 239
The Frontiers 239
Size 240
The Genius of the Roman Military 240
Recruitment and Conditions of Service 242
5. An Unsolved Problem: The North 243
6. Maintaining the Peace: Consent, Custom, Coercion 244
Amphitheaters: What Were They For? 245
Study Questions 246
11. Religions of the Empire 248
1. Honoring the Gods 248
The Uses of Amusement 248
2. Religions of the Empire 252
Regulating Diversity 252
3. Innovative Religions 254
Monotheism 254
Christianity 257
Rabbinic Judaism 261
4. Philosophy: How to Live Well 262
The Moral Philosophers 262
Philosophy for the Masses 263
Study Questions 263
12. The Empire From the Third Century Crisis to Justinian 265
1. The Third Century Crisis 265
Imperial Security: A Fine Balance 266
The Nature of the Crisis 268
2. Gradual Recovery 270
Diocletian and Constantine 270
Civil War and the Victory of Constantine 273
Constantius II and Julian 274
3. Society in the Late Empire 274
The Senate in the Late Empire 274
The Western Aristocracy 25
The Disappearance of the Decurions 275
The Rise of Peasant Serfdom 276
The Sacralization of Court and Emperor 276
4. The Army, the Empire, and the Barbarians 277
The Mobile Reserve 277
Recruitment 278
5. The Collapse of the Western Empire 279
Rome Sacked 281
The Rise of the German Kingdoms 281
What Kind of Invaders? 282
Some Thoughts on the Fall of the Western Empire 286
6. The Rise of the Byzantine Empire 287
What Made Byzantium Successful 287
Justinian and the Promulgation of the Code 288
Byzantine Culture 288
7. The Slavs and Eastern Europe 289
Study Questions 289
13. The Transformation of the Empire 291
1. History Moves Northward and Eastward 291
The Frontiers 291
2. The Transformation of the Classical Tradition 292
New Men and the Classics 293
Christianity and the Classical Tradition 294
3. The Empire and the Church Come to Terms 294
The Democratization of Excellence 294
Religious Enthusiasts: A Problem for the Authorities 297
Self-Realization: Pagan and Christian Ways 298
Faith and Reason 299
4. The Christian Way of Life 301
The Liturgy: The Actualization of Sacred History 301
The Visual Expression of the New Union 303
Society and the Church 305
5. Civilizing the Barbarians 309
The Fundamental Problem 309
Christians and Barbarians 310
6. Diverging Beliefs 311
Theological Complications and Regional Variations 312
Study Questions 313
14. Late Antiquity: The Monotheistic Revolution 315
1. Revolutionary Monotheism 315
The Civic Religions of the Empire 315
2. The Cultural Background 317
The Arabs: A People in Between 317
3. Islam 318
Muhammad 318
Islamic Beliefs 319
The Expansion of Islam 322
4. “The Way:” Social Cohesion in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam 324
Judaism and the Jewish Way 324
Christianity and the Christian Way 326
The Muslim Way 327
5. Greco-Roman Legacies 329
East and West 329
6. Epilogue 332
Old Barriers Fall 332
East and West: A Cultural Dialogue 333
Study Questions 333
Suggested Readings 335
Index 341
